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Project Example

This paper shows that the writer had a good understanding of the sociological perspective as presented in the class. The writer used the concept of rationalization very effectively to understand "who benefits and who loses" from the technology.

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I’m late, I’m late

The social history of the watch

Part I

There is probably no invention that has been more subtly influential on contemporary society than the watch. It has advanced our ability to accurately mark the passage of time anywhere we go. Time has become the master, for who among us has not been pressed or oppressed by time. Probably the most common complaints are: I don’t have enough time, I wish I had more time, time is up, there is no time, what time is it, when, when, when ??? There is no other invention that has made us more aware of our own mortality then the small mechanical dial or brightly lit LED that most persons wear about their wrists.

Time keeping has been a part of most human cultures for centuries in one form or another. Time has been monitored by the cycles of the moon, stars and sun. It has been marked with elaborate monoliths such as the Mayan pyramids and Stonehenge. The Chinese invented elaborate pieces that ran on water. Some time during the middle ages Europeans designed the mechanical clock tower for the purpose of calling the community to prayer and assembly. It is not until 1511 that time would finally begin to toll. (Landes, 1983)

Sometime between 1500 and 1510 a jeweler by the name of Peter Henlein developed the spring-powered clock. This new technology allowed Henlein to make a timepiece small enough to be portable. Invented in Nurnberg, Germany, it would be called the “Nurnberg Egg” and would be remembered as the first pocket watch. The size of a hockey puck, the egg device was riddled with problems that made it impractical to use for much more than a mantle clock. Its ornateness and expense made it a prize only the wealthy could afford.(Beagle, 2002)

Before the miniaturized time keeper would be widely accepted, it would have to undergo a number of technological advancements which would make it smaller and more accurate. Once these began to occur, the watch became a catalyst for advancements in science, transportation and war. These advancements included: acceptance by the Calvinist movement in Geneva (clock and watch center of the world) in 1541; Galileo sketched, in 1582, the theory of pendulum movement; in 1657 Christian Huygen built the first pendulum clock which led him to the invention of the balance wheel and spring assembly that would improve time accuracy to within 10 minutes. While watches grew smaller and more accurate they were still relatively expensive to the common worker. It wasn’t until 1880 that watches were being mass produced by Girard-Perregaux. These wristwatches were primarily used by the military for coordinating small scale assaults. In 1884, Greenwich, England was named the zero meridian. This made it possible to set time accuracy around the world. The rationalization of time facilitated advancements in transportation and communication. It allowed for the establishment of time zones that would allow trains and ships to establish coordinate and schedule shipments over long distances. It also made possible accuracy in cartography through the longitude and latitude coordinates, which calculates global positioning. These advancements have continued to this day. In 1970, Hamilton company releases the first digital watches, Pulsar.(Marienttaz) This resulted from advancements in quartz and battery technologies. The first light sensitive watches were produced in WWII and had hands covered in radium for use in the trenches.(Landes, 1983) Now we can keep time any where on or off the planet. (Mariettaz)

This ability to keep time with accuracy is also the catalyst to many of our modern technologies such as the car, washer/ dryer, microwave, and the personal computer, and almost anything that requires timing. These technologies are dependent on our ability to track and measure time in microunits. For example, the car operates on the timing of the cylinders to fire and turn the motor, while the washer/ dryer and microwave need devices to measure the time of exposure, the personal computer is dependent on its ability to translate inputs and return out puts as quickly as possible, to mention a few.

Nowhere, however, has this invention had more impact then on society itself. That is why we are in such a hurry. It is our capacity to measure time in its most infinitesimal form that has led us to manage our lives to the second. We schedule every aspect of our lives. Time dictates when we should eat, sleep and work in contrast to natural cycles. It influences our status, values and wealth. Our acceptance and value are based on our timeliness. The measurement of our speed and quantafiable productiveness determines our societal worth, while, our economic standards are measured by units per time. We are judged on the basis of our rational efficiency. Wages are paid based on hours worked. Time is the dictator of Western society.

In my own life, as in the life of most Westerners, time sets the norms. From a young age we are conditioned to conduct our lives according to schedules set by the face of time and not according to the diurnal cycles of nature. As children we often have to get up before the sun to get ready for school. The clock then tells us when the bus arrives, when school starts, what time recess is, when its lunch time, dinner time and bed time. Who as a child doesn’t remember arguing with one’s parents that it wasn’t time for bed because the sun was still up? How often when we were hungry were we not told that we had to what for dinner time? And who can forget the dreaded time-outs? As adults we have become clock watchers. We watch the clock for when it’s time to go home, go on vacation, go to work. We constantly look at our watches to know whether we are running behind or on time. By monitoring the time we can judge how long it will take us to complete a task or get to our next destination. In school education is doled out in 50 minute increments. Customer service persons are trained to interact with customers quickly in many instances within prescribed time limits, such as 10 seconds per order. Doctors herd patients on the bases of 15 minute appointment blocks. While the watch or portable timekeeper has allowed us the means to create efficient schedules, it has also pressured us to take on more and more obligations to the neglect of our health and well being. The measure of micro time has made us slaves rather than journeymen. Prior to the time master production was based on the quality of the work and daily life was in tune with the movement of the planet around the sun. We were more natural then.

The Socialization and Acculturation of Time as Defined by the Watch

Prior to the advent of the watch or portable time piece, time was marked by the passage or the heavens. When the sun came up it was time to start the day. When the sun set it was time to sleep. Early mechanisms that measured time were used to mark the movements of the heavens as in the case of Chinese water clocks or to signal the call to prayer or duty as in the case of the early European clock towers. None of these actually showed the time and no one device was accurate to another. The locations of these devices were the courts of royalty or in cloisters. In more equatorial regions sundials maintained a mark for the passage of time. It wouldn’t be until the invention of the watch that time would begin to be seen as an object to be controlled and rationalized. Time would become the marker by which we measured efficiency, made predictions and calculated our worth.

The first watches arguably started in Geneva were more objects of artistic expression than mechanisms of measure. The materials used to design these instruments were expensive and difficult to produce. Infiriorities in design and instabilities in the early materials made them susceptible to temperature changes and jostling. Thus, watches and other miniature timekeepers were only available to those with wealth. Therefore watchmakers in Switzerland and France focused on aesthetics rather than accuracy designing elaborate and complicated pieces for sale to the wealthy. Ownership of a watch was seen as a status symbol. If you owned a watch you had class for its value was about equal to 10 years peasant wages. Lituraries such as Chaucer demonstrated the attitude about watches in the late 1500s being focused on social status bestowed on watch ownership.(Macey, 1980) A shift from aesthetics to practicality would occur on the back of the Protestant Reformation.

Fleeing oppression Protestants, such as Jean Calvin, fled to Geneva followed by many of the french watchmakers. In spite of strict bans on theater, art and jewelry, Calvinist perceived the usefulness of the watch as a practical tool for justifying their work ethic, thus allowing jewelers and watchmakers to remain.(Landes,1983) To maintain its practicality the watch would have to become more reliable. Currently it lost about 10 minutes a day, unwound rapidly, changes in temperature and friction on parts further exasperated these flows. A search to resolve these problems would facilitate advancements in metallurgy, tooling and miniaturization.

Astronomers such as Galileo would advance the watch by the discovery of pendulum movement which would further the understanding of equal time and constant movement. Studies in equal time would allow the further subdivision of time in to minutes and later seconds. Prior to this, time was measured in fractions of an hour, such as halves and quarters. The understanding of constant movement would allow watchmakers to design springs, balances and regulators that equalized forces with in the watch eliminating irregularities that caused them to lose time.(Landes, 1983) This regularity would prove important to mariners in their search for longitudinal measure.

The advent of longitude coupled with the ability to track latitude, which was made possible by the watch, would allow England to become an empire at sea. Ships at sea could accurately track their location anywhere even in open waters. Aside from being accepted in the shipping and transportation industry. Cartographers found longitudinal coordinates a benefit in accurate map making. Magistrates, financiers, and tradesmen found themselves enabled to enforce a condition of order(Landes, 1983) by establishing hours of operation and curfews.

Aside from its practical uses in measurement and scheduling, the watch also found its way into theology, literature, philosophy and art. During the horological revolution,1660 - 1760, we find the introduction of watches as the symbol of mortality. Works like Dante’s Inferno and Hograth’s tailpiece depict correlations between time and death. Literary works continued to depict the watch as a badge of society, Moll Flanders. In theology and philosophy, we find metaphors of the “watchmaker god.” The idea that god exists because of the orderliness of the universe, animals and man.(Macey,1980)

Other areas of acceptance include industry who would begin to regulate the workforce through the time clock. The miniaturization of mechanism would also see the design of the water frame, the catalysts of the textile industry and the Industrial revolution, and automata(robots). Science benefitted from the development of specialized tools for cutting and grinding parts.(Macey,1980) The military accepted the watch as tool for coordinating movements. The mass production of watches for distribution to the general public would not find production until 1892.(Mariettaz) Prior to this only military officers and persons with money or money interests possessed watches. However, most homes did utilize small clocks in Europe and the United States prior to 1892 especially in urban centers.(Macey, 1980)

The dictation of time on society probably came about during the industrial revolution. It was at this time that mass production became the motivation behind economics as a measure of units per time. This however was not seen across all nations and cultures at the same time. Switzerland initially rejected mass production of watches preferring the ornate and complex. Guilds promoted this by forbidding access to the industry. The Chinese as late as 1930 still used the measure of shadows to tell time, though watches and mechanical clocks were widely available. Chinese court rejected the watch based on the fact that individuals began being late for appointments. Traditionally, individuals would have arrived early and stayed until their appointments. (Landes, 1983)

Where it would appear that Christianity embraced the regiment of time. Judaism, Islam and the eastern beliefs appear to have rejected or delayed their acceptance of times dictates. Even today prayer as an example is performed during wide open time lines in Judaism and Islam. Christianity in a number of sects has rigid rules on devotion and work ethics.(Landes, 1983) This is particularly true in capitalist western societies were there was adoption of the Protestant work ethic. Others who would be in objection to such a scheduled lifestyle are those groups who still live diurnally, these are predominantly rural subsistence farmers and families in the “less developed nations.”

As we further redefine development based on our own technology time is ever present. Advancements in communication, transportation and war have enable us (the clock watcher society) to enforce conformity and belief around the world. Without the watch and the acculturation of microtime management it may never have been possible to travel to the moon or develop smart bombs or nuclear weapons. The ever presence of time has enable us to promote a disposable lifestyle that claims that there are better ways to spend our time than fulfilling ba sic needs.

Part II: Who benefits, who loses from the watch

Capitalism is the ideology that happiness comes from the accumulation of as much stuff in as short a time as possible, immediate returns and instant gratification. It is by this standard that contemporary Western society defines modernization and growth. This way of life would not have been possible had it not been for the advent of the watch. It is from the stand point of Capitalism that I will describe how the watch has been fastidious for some and disruptive for others.

As with any technology or change there are those who stand to gain and those who will eventually lose. Those who would benefit from the watch are those whose well being or perceived well-being is increased and those who are advantaged as a result of rationalizations, conceptualizations and hierarchies resulting from this technology. Of course, the opposite are those who would be disadvantaged or oppressed by this technology and its influences on society. The technological and social advents of the watch can be seen in three areas: accuracy, miniaturization and mobility.

Accuracy, which could be defined as consistency and reliability, was an important function of the watch because it meant developing techniques to prevent the loss of time and the rationalization of time into ever smaller units. This would allow for predictability and calculability, which in turn benefitted shipping, economics and war. Calculability also lead to the development of the chronometer and predictability helped to measure time in smaller units. The implications were the development of longitude and latitude which would allow ships at sea to know their locations and predict their arrival, which would improve efficiency in transportation. In the economy, businesses and bourgeoises would be able to establish routines for the operation of the market and the movement of money. It would also allow employers to measure the efficiency of their employees based on units per time. This would lead to the establishment of standards of compliance. Employees who could not meet expectations set by standardization would be ostracized. Individuals who could not meet these standards where thus disadvantaged. Bourgeoisies could also use this rationalization to make predictions and set standards or expectations of business practices and profitability. The more production in a shorter time the higher the profits. For employees or the individual this standardization would lead to the time clock. The timing of work performance meant pressures to comply with out distraction. With unit/time as a measure of profitability the industrial revolution seen the advent of the sweat shop and abuse of laborers. Laborers were required to work long hours, even beyond natural daylight. Families were split as parents were forced into these circumstances just to make ends meat.

The military also benefitted by many of these same standardizations. These accuracies allowed military officers to coordinate troop movements and develop weapons that could be placed with precision. This is one of the reasons the British empire was so powerful and the US is now. Now, with technologies that measure micro units of time we have time-bombs and weapons that perform based on the number of bullets per minute. This is not good for those groups on the receiving end. The combination of the coordination of troops and the accuracy in weapon performance can be correlated with the oppression and destruction of others. With this, groups could further establish there dominance over others and enforce their worldview. How many cultures have been lost to this technology?

The accuracy of the watch through reliability and standardized time units has further promoted longevity. Where would medicine be if we had not discovered the timing of the heart? Through technologies of the watch doctors and health care professionals can measure the hearts efficiency. Advances in the understanding of life expectancy of human organs allows practitioners to perform life saving surgeries and transplant vital organs. If it was not for these understandings, I would not be the proud father of two little boys, both of whom were premature. It was only through efficient use of time that medical professionals were able to bring them into the world. Of course the down side to this is that natality and mortality are down in those nations with these technologies. Nations without such technologies are disadvantaged in this affect. Also, the planet itself suffers as well by the increase in population and the pressure it presents on resources.

Prior to the advent of the watch, individuals conducted their lives based on the diurnal and seasonal cycles. When the sun came up you rose. When it went down you slept. When you were hungry you ate. Now, the watch with its micro units of time dictates when we should do these things. Through this we can now conceive of the day as being measured in 24 units known as hours. A day is no longer seen as from sun up to sun set but it is divided by a standard at the middle of the night which often does not coordinate with the position of the moon or sun.

According to Max Weber rationalization is defined by efficiency, predictability, calculability and dehumanization (Cordray, lecture 7). Accuracy in the watch has allowed all of these. We now perform based on the speed at which we perform our tasks, we schedule our days based on our perception of what can be accomplished based on the time given, we judge others and set expectations and we see only the performance and not the individual.

As has been illustrated those who benefit from this technology are those who’s lives would be saved by it, those who gain monetarily by it, and those who gain dominance. Those who would suffer are those who are not saved, those who are subjugated, and the environment. While the environment has not suffered directly, its losses are due to human compliance to time as an institution. The conquesting nature of accomplishing gain in the short run has influenced the use of raping techniques on natural resources. Strip mining and clear cutting are examples. Due to the demand for compliance to the unit/time ratio, we have developed associative technologies which allow us to deal with basic needs, such as eating in a rapid and disposable fashion. If there was no press to manage time would there be disposable diapers and McDonald’s wrappers to fill and pollute the lands and water? The ability to save lives and promote longevity also adds to the demands on the environment by increasing polluters and demanders.

Another advent of the watch has been in the area of miniaturization. This advancement has allowed for the inclusion of timing devices small enough to regulate the heart or run our computers and toys. Miniaturization of clock springs, pins, and repeaters allowed for advancements in weapons, such as the automatic riffle or the smart bomb that uses positioning technology to hit its target. In medicine, the miniaturization of mechanism has allowed for designs such as the artificial heart and pacemaker. Early scientist like Descartes used automatons to illustrate and conceptualize about the differences between man and animal (Macey, 1980). Eventually these automatons would lead to robotics that coupled with rationalization for efficiency would influence auto makers and other assembly line producers. This of course would result in less work for individuals. Miniaturization has also benefitted our knowledge by allowing us to explore regions beyond our reach such as the deep trenches of the ocean or the surface of Mars.

On the downside, miniaturization has meant the exclusion of laborers from the process of production and the increase in competition for skilled educated positions. While competition for these positions has meant an increase in education it has also become a mandate for success. Now a days we rarely go on to higher education to become enlightened but rather we go in order to compete. This competition is based on our ability to perform and absorb as much information as possible in a short a time as possible. Those who succeed may move on to “better” careers. Those who fail to meet expectations may find themselves further frustrated. Winners may often become oppressive and condescending to those they believe are beneath them. This division of educated and less educated has also promoted greater divisions between the wealthy controlling few and those who are struggling to survive. Social imagination as defined as being how the time we live in influences our behavior shows that at this current stage it is necessary to compete educationally in order to comply with the societal norms of owning one’s own home, car and other toys.

Miniaturizations influence on other aspects of society include the segregation of home, work, and leisure. This is especially the case with the automobile. The miniaturization of watch mechanics and the rationalization of timing allowed auto inventors to idealize and create the combustion engine. The timing of the firing of each cylinder is important to its operation. This ripple of watch technology has allowed us (society) to rationalize home, work and play as separate entities by removing their proximities. In the absence of proximity to family we focus on our performance. This has also allowed us to move farther from our resources and support structures. When expectations and resources fail we are left without the means to cope. This lack of proximity may also be influential on individualism, which dictates that we do it on our own and exclude others even family. This can result in fractured family unit a prominent aspect of our modern society.

Mobility is the last aspect of the watch. This does not necessarily mean the movement of the watch from one place to another. It refers to the ability to move other things efficiently from one place to another, the understanding of time and physics. The portability of the watch, the conceptualization of time as a measure of location in relation to some point allows us to conceptualize a global standard time. We can now draw invisible divisions around the planet that allow us to designate one day from the next. It also helped to standardize time zones which allow us to conduct business, coordinate movement and communicate with other individuals and groups around the globe. This benefits business and allows us to travel more readily to other places for enlightenment and understanding, conceiving other cultures through travel and communication. It allows us to keep a link to support mechanisms. It has even allowed us to perceive of space and time travel. The mobility of time has also permitted the oppression of others through coordinated wars and fiscal conquests.

Overall I would judge the watch as a tool of oppression and segregation. Social institutions such as education and the economy use time to set standards that promote competition between individuals and groups. These standards have become expectations by which we judge others, helping to enforce stereotypes and contention between groups, and promotes the uneven distribution of resources. From its earliest invention the watch was a symbol of status due to their expense. Owners could then identify themselves as elite and exclude others. Even today, though watches are more wide spread and even mandates for survival in our time oriented society, expensive watches such as Rolex promote the division of wealth. Desire for such status promotes competition and aggression.

The watch is now the standard by which we live our lives in Western society. “Time rules life.” This is the motto of the National Association Of Watch and Clock Collectors of the USA. (Landes, 1983) Like any government, it sets the guidelines by which we live our lives. It oppresses and controls the masses while allowing an elite group to profit. The watch and its management of micro time influences both the individual and the globe. It is what makes globalization possible through timely communication and transport. It has made it possible for transnational corporations and banking institutions to set the standards of development and growth that have further segregated the haves from the have nots. The capitalists way of life would not be possible without the watch. Tempus vitam regit. Time rules life.

What does this mean for the future? Materialists might argue that the advancements made possible by the watch are what have resulted in changes to society. They would argue that our institutions are defined by our technology. Viewing the influences of the watch might lead us to believe this because the watch has made it possible to institutionalize time. It sets standards for efficience, it has influenced how we believe in god (this was discussed in section two) and it dictates our daily routines. Our abilities to manipulate our environment based on the micro management of time has influenced the belief in technological determinism. We are able to save lives and explore habitats hazardous to human life. Due to the ability to work with fractions of time science has been able to advance gene manipulation. Put together these allow us to perceive technology as the cure for all things, that there is nothing we can’t fix.

Sources

Beagle Software. 2002. “The History of Time Keeping.” http://www.atomictimeclock.com/maintimehistory.htm#Mechanical%Clocks

Landes, David. 1983. “Revolution in Time” Belknap Press. Cambridge, Mass.

Macey, Samuel L. 1980. “ Clocks and the Cosmos” Archon Books. Hamden, Conn.

Mariettaz. “Five Centuries Watches History” http://www.mariettaz.ch/watches_history.html Switzerland.

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